Political Philosophy
Social Contract
Government legitimacy from consent of the governed — Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau
Social contract theory holds that the legitimacy of political authority derives from the consent of the governed (explicit or implicit). Major theorists: (1) Thomas Hobbes ("Leviathan," 1651) — natural state is war of all against all; people contract to surrender freedom to absolute sovereign. (2) John Locke ("Two Treatises," 1689) — natural rights to life, liberty, property; government protects these; right to revolt if government fails. (3) Jean-Jacques Rousseau ("Social Contract," 1762) — general will; freedom in obedience to law one made oneself. Foundation of modern liberal democracy.
- ConceptGovernment legitimacy from consent of governed
- HobbesAbsolute sovereign needed to escape state of war
- LockeGovernment protects natural rights; right to revolt
- RousseauGeneral will; freedom through self-legislated law
- ModernRawls's hypothetical contract (Veil of Ignorance)
- InfluenceAmerican/French revolutions; modern democracy
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Why social contract matters
- Political philosophy. Foundation of liberalism.
- Constitutional democracy. Basis of legitimacy.
- Human rights. Locke's foundation.
- Revolution. Right to overthrow corrupt government.
- Modern law. Authority of legal systems.
- International relations. Some apply between states.
- Education. Foundation of civic theory.
Common misconceptions
- Historical contract. Hypothetical, not historical.
- One contract theory. Many varieties.
- Settled question. Many specific debates.
- Implies majoritarian. Some emphasize minority rights.
- Justifies any government. Most theorists place limits.
- Old idea. Continually refined; Rawlsian contemporary.
Frequently asked questions
What's the social contract?
Theory that political authority is legitimized by consent of the governed. Imaginary state of nature (pre-political): individuals lacking organized society. Reasons to leave: insecurity, conflict, lack of cooperation. People agree (explicitly or implicitly) to give up some freedoms in exchange for protection and order under government. Government's authority derives from this consent.
What's Hobbes's view?
"Leviathan" (1651). State of nature: war of all against all. Life "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." To escape: contract to surrender all rights to absolute sovereign in exchange for security. Sovereign creates law and order. Once contracted: subjects can't revolt (would return to state of nature). Justifies absolute monarchy. Pessimistic view of human nature.
What's Locke's view?
"Second Treatise of Government" (1689). State of nature: actually decent; humans rational, equal. Natural rights to life, liberty, property. Government formed to protect these rights. Contract: limited surrender of rights; government accountable. If government violates rights: right to revolt. Justifies limited government, individual rights. Inspired American Revolution and Declaration of Independence.
What's Rousseau's view?
"The Social Contract" (1762). State of nature: peaceful, simple. Civilization corrupts. Solution: contract creating community where individuals are also legislators. Each surrenders rights to whole; whole gives them back as citizens. General will: collective rational interest. Freedom: obedience to law one made oneself. Justifies republican democracy. Influenced French Revolution.
What's the state of nature?
Hypothetical condition before civil society. Different theorists: different views. Hobbes: violent, insecure. Locke: fairly peaceful but lacking common authority. Rousseau: peaceful, free. Used to: explain why we need society; what we surrendered in contracting; basis for government legitimacy. Not historical claim — heuristic.
What's the general will?
Rousseau's concept. Not majority opinion or sum of individual wills. Genuine common interest of community as collective. Each citizen, when truly thinking of common good, expresses general will. Government should follow general will. Difficult to identify in practice. Critics: vague; potentially totalitarian. Difference from will of all (sum of selfish desires).
How does Rawls update social contract?
John Rawls (1971). "A Theory of Justice." Hypothetical contract behind "veil of ignorance" — chooses principles of justice without knowing one's own status (race, wealth, talents). Result: principles all could rationally accept. Differs from historical contract: hypothetical, not actual. Justifies fairness principles; egalitarian implications. Major contemporary version of social contract.