Political Philosophy
Rawlsian Justice
Justice as fairness — principles all rational agents would accept
John Rawls's theory of justice ("A Theory of Justice," 1971) holds that just principles are those rational agents would choose behind a "veil of ignorance" — without knowing their own position in society. Two principles emerge: (1) Equal basic liberties for all (priority). (2) Social/economic inequalities permitted only if they (a) work to greatest benefit of least advantaged, and (b) attached to positions open to all under fair equality of opportunity. "Justice as fairness" — most influential modern political philosophy. Critics: libertarian (Nozick), communitarian (MacIntyre, Sandel), feminist.
- AuthorJohn Rawls (1971, "A Theory of Justice")
- MethodVeil of ignorance hypothetical contract
- First principleEqual basic liberties (priority)
- Second principle (a)Difference principle - benefit least advantaged
- Second principle (b)Fair equality of opportunity
- Justice as fairnessRawls's name for theory
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Why Rawls matters
- Political philosophy. Most influential modern theory.
- Justice and equality. Major framework.
- Public policy. Foundations for redistribution.
- Constitutional theory. Justification for rights.
- Bioethics. Just allocation of healthcare.
- Education. Foundational political theory.
- International justice. Extensions to global level.
Common misconceptions
- Pure egalitarianism. Allows inequalities benefiting worst-off.
- Just thought experiment. Rigorous philosophical argument.
- Anti-liberty. First principle prioritizes liberties.
- One application. Many specific debates.
- Settles all questions. Active debate.
- Just utilitarianism. Distinct framework.
Frequently asked questions
What's Rawls's theory?
Justice as fairness. Just principles: those rational agents would choose behind veil of ignorance — not knowing their social position, talents, or even identity. From this position: would choose principles that protect against worst outcomes. Rawls argues: would choose his two principles. Theory: alternative to utilitarianism; protects individual rights; egalitarian implications.
What's the veil of ignorance?
Thought experiment. Imagine: choosing principles for society without knowing what your position will be — could be rich or poor, talented or not, any race, any abilities. Rational choice in this position: principles that protect worst-off (could be you). Behind veil: maximizes minimum outcome (maximin reasoning). Filters: pure self-interest; produces fair principles all could accept.
What are the two principles?
First: equal basic liberties for all (speech, conscience, vote, etc.). Priority over second. Second: social and economic inequalities permitted only when (a) work to greatest benefit of least advantaged (difference principle), and (b) attached to offices open to all under fair equality of opportunity. Together: protect rights, accept limited inequality, favor disadvantaged.
What's the difference principle?
Inequalities justified only if they make worst off better than they'd otherwise be. If allowing some to be richer makes poor better off (e.g., incentives for productivity benefiting all): permitted. If inequality harms poor: not justified. Key: comparison is to alternative arrangements, not absolute equality. Justifies limited but not unlimited inequality.
What's the maximin rule?
Decision rule behind veil. Maximize the minimum outcome — choose option whose worst case is best. Different from expected utility (which utilitarianism uses). Rationale: in extreme uncertainty (don't know your position), risk-averse strategy. Critics: people aren't necessarily that risk-averse; might gamble. Rawls: distinctive justification for principles.
What are the critiques?
Multiple. (1) Libertarian (Nozick): violates property rights; redistribution wrong. (2) Communitarian (MacIntyre, Sandel): individuals presupposed atomistic; ignore community values. (3) Feminist: family ignored; private sphere unaddressed. (4) Utilitarian: focuses on worst-off ignores total welfare. (5) Cultural: assumes Western individualist framework. Major contemporary critic in each tradition.
What's its impact?
Most influential English-speaking political philosophy of 20th century. Revived political philosophy as field. Inspired: Nozick's libertarian response, communitarian critiques, modern egalitarianism, capability approach (Sen, Nussbaum). Major contemporary debates: Rawls's framework as starting point. Even disagreers: respond to Rawls. Shaped how political philosophy done.