Political Philosophy
Natural Rights
Inherent rights from nature or human dignity — independent of government
Natural rights are rights claimed to belong to all humans by virtue of being human, independent of any government or society. Foundation of: human rights tradition. Origins: ancient (Stoic), Christian (imago dei), modern (Locke). Locke's natural rights: life, liberty, property. Rooted in: rational human nature, divine creation, or social contract reasoning. Different from: legal rights (granted by government), positive rights (require provision). Critics: where do they come from? Bentham called natural rights "nonsense upon stilts." Modern: human rights frameworks (UDHR 1948) reflect natural rights tradition.
- DefinitionRights belonging to all by being human
- Locke's classicLife, liberty, property
- Sources proposedReason, God, social contract, dignity
- Different fromLegal rights (granted by government)
- Famous criticJeremy Bentham ("nonsense upon stilts")
- ModernHuman rights (UDHR 1948)
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Why natural rights matter
- Human rights. Foundation of modern framework.
- Constitutional law. Limit on government.
- Political philosophy. Liberal tradition.
- International law. UDHR, treaties.
- Civil rights movements. Universal claims.
- Bioethics. Right to life, autonomy.
- Education. Civic theory.
Common misconceptions
- Just legal rights. Pre-legal; recognized by law.
- Universally accepted. Bentham, others reject.
- One source. Multiple proposed (God, reason, etc.).
- Settled by Constitution. Constitutional rights distinct.
- Same as natural law. Related; not identical.
- Same in all theories. Theorists disagree on content.
Frequently asked questions
What are natural rights?
Rights that belong to all humans by virtue of human nature. Independent of any specific government or culture. Universal and inalienable. Locke's classic version: life, liberty, property. Modern version: human rights more broadly (UDHR includes many rights). Foundation of: many constitutions and international agreements. Distinguish from: legal rights (specific to legal system).
What's Locke's argument?
John Locke (1689). Reason teaches: humans are equal and free in state of nature; have natural rights to life, liberty, property. Property derives from labor: mixing labor with nature creates property. Government's purpose: protect these natural rights. Government not source of rights; just enforcer. If government fails: right to revolt and replace it.
How are they justified?
Different sources proposed. (1) Religious: God-given; humans made in God's image. (2) Rational: human nature/dignity; reason discovers them (Locke, Kant). (3) Social contract: rational agents would agree to them (Rawls). (4) Historical: emerged from human experience and moral progress. Different justifications support similar conclusions but disagree on foundations.
What's Bentham's critique?
Jeremy Bentham (1816). Rejected natural rights as "nonsense upon stilts." Rights must come from law (positive law). Without law: just claims. Couldn't see how nature itself confers rights. Utilitarian alternative: actions evaluated by consequences, not pre-political rights. Influential rejection. Modern utilitarianism: complicated relationship with rights.
How does it relate to human rights?
Modern human rights tradition descends from natural rights. UDHR (1948): rights as inherent to human dignity. Universal, inalienable. Not granted by any government — recognized. Practical application: limits on what governments can do. Even when governments violate rights, rights still exist (just unrecognized). Foundation of modern international law on rights.
What about positive vs negative rights?
Different categories. Negative rights: protections against interference (free speech, freedom from torture). Positive rights: claims to assistance (right to education, healthcare). Natural rights tradition often emphasizes negative; positive rights more recent additions. Debate: are positive rights as fundamental?
What about animal rights?
Modern extension. If natural rights from rational nature: only humans. If from sentience or capacity to suffer: animals included. Peter Singer argues for animal liberation; not exactly natural rights framework. Tom Regan: animal rights as natural. Continuing debate. Many: extend to higher animals if not all sentient beings.